The real cost of lithium-ion: an environmentally and ethically tarnishing metal

How the current status of lithium batteries is diminishing their sustainability

The depressing thing about battery technology is that it gets better, but it gets better slowly. There are a whole bunch of problems in materials science that come in trying to make batteries better.

— Nathan Myhrvold, former Chief Technology Officer, Microsoft

Rechargeable batteries have had a profound effect on modern day life and will continue to do so as our demands for energy storage technologies increase. Among the battery technologies currently in use, lithium-ion batteries possess the highest specific capacity due to the low atomic weight and high standard reduction potential of lithium . Nonetheless, lithium-ion batteries are approaching their theoretical energy densities, limited by the insertion chemistry of cathode materials . Performance limitations combined with the scarce resources of lithium is sharply contrasted by the increasing demand for versatile rechargeable batteries.

Beyond well-established technological fields, such as portable electronic devices, the electric-vehicle market is expected to radically change the automotive and energy storage industries. The resultant strain on lithium feedstocks must not be underestimated. For context, global sales of electric vehicles exceeded one million cars per year for the first time in 2017 . On average, each electric vehicle is equipped with a battery pack weighing 250 kg and contains approximately 12 kg of lithium. 250 tonnes of the lithium-containing mineral ore spodumene, LiAl(SiO₃)₂, or 750 tonnes of lithium-rich brine are needed to produce just one tonne of usable lithium. Across the industry in its current state 250,000 tonnes of lithium-ion battery packs are required , requiring between 5.2 and 15.6 million tonnes of lithium feedstock material. These numbers, as well as the resulting financial and environmental impact, are astronomical . Though the recycling of lithium cells is an active area of research , it currently requires 28 tonnes of used lithium-ion battery packs, from approximately 256 end-of-life electric vehicles, to produce just one tonne of re-usable lithium . Complexities in recycling result from trivial economic gains, limited government incentive, and a lack of industry standardization towards cell design. Much more must be done.

An even greater concern regards the multifarious social, ethical and environmental issues surrounding the supply chain of toxic cobalt, another common electrode component. Inhomogeneous crustal distribution of cobalt-rich ore means that it is primarily sourced from mines in the Democratic Republic of the Congo. The resulting social and environmental burdens are therefore being borne by some of the world’s most vulnerable people .

Clearly, innovation in battery technology to feature metals beyond lithium and cobalt is required if we are to continue to meet the growing market demand. Moreover, future energy storage should be designed upon foundations of sustainability, minimal environmental impact and economical fairness whilst continuing to offer high performance. No small feat.